Abstract: According to Habermas the idea of the public sphere, an area in social lives where individuals can meet freely to discuss the happenings within a society influencing political actions. Habermas argues that the public sphere first emerged in London coffeehouses during the late 1600s and early 1700s. He views both the normative ideal and the social reality of life within coffeehouses. This essay reflects the ideas expressed by Habermas and illuminates how coffeehouses were increasingly beneficial to the lives of Londoners. Individuals, during this time, begin to rely on the coffeehouses as sources of news and ideas. There begins to be a large circulation of intellectuals discussing within coffeehouses impacting the public sphere. This essay looks at people against coffeehouses, people involved in them, and people who observe the happenings within.
Keywords: Habermas, Coffeehouses, Public Sphere, Government, Public Opinion, Freedom, Democracy, Social Dynamics
Introduction: In the late 1600s coffeehouses became very popular. Individuals were attending the coffeehouses to partake in discussions and rational debates. Coffeehouses also became a main source for spread of news. Whether by word of mouth or newspaper. Due to the constant inflow of news and ideas from different socioeconomic classes a new concept formed, the idea of the public sphere.
According to Habermas (1980), the public sphere can be defined as “a realm of our social life in which something approaching public opinion can be formed” (p. 198). This idea of public sphere is first apparent in London Coffeehouses where people are coming together to share ideas and views amongst colleagues.
For the first time in the late 17th century early 18th century, opinions and ideas are separate from the government, people are discussing political views freely without restriction. Habermas (1980) describes this new freedom by writing, “Although state authority is so to speak the executor of the political sphere, it is not a part of it” (p. 198). The government regulates the political sphere, however, is not involved in its affairs.
Before coffeehouses became popular, there was no place for a wide variety of people to meet and discuss. Many meeting places were highly exclusive based upon guild, profession, wealth, etc. Habermas (1980) claims “Access is granted to all citizens”(p. 198). This allowed all people to access news, discussion, and the public sphere.
Coffeehouses allow people to foster ration debate. According to Habermas (1980), “public opinion can by definition only come into existence when a reasoning public is presupposed” (p. 198). Without rational debate public sphere would not exist and the same is true for the opposite, being if there was no public sphere rational debate would not be relevant. Rational debate is the core to the public sphere bringing all ideas, contradicting ideas ad needs of the public into account.
In the public sphere a person’s individual ideas, wants, and needs is blurred by those of the public sphere. Habermas (1980) describes the nature of debate as “A portion of the public sphere comes into being in every conversation in which private individuals assemble to form a public body” (p. 198). Individuals are constantly reminded of the public sphere through coffeehouses and push their private interests aside to best benefit the public.
Coffeehouses established a place where public opinion can grow. Public opinion are views that are prevalent to the general public. As individuals move their focus towards the public sphere public opinion can form. Habermas (1980) argues, “That principles of public information which once had to be fought for against the arcane policies of monarchies and which since that time has made it possible the democratic control of state activities” (p. 198). Demonstrating the shift from a monarchical rule to that of democratic control. People in coffeehouses can now voice their opinions instead of living beneath a monarch.
People gain information through different forms of media. Habermas (1980) points out that “today newspapers and magazines, radio and television are the media of the public sphere”(p. 198). In present day people turn to the media in order to receive news of current affairs. Similarly, in the 18th century people were gaining information from newspapers in coffeehouses.
People now have freedom expressing an opinion is tolerated and encouraged in the public sphere. Habermas (1980) explains, “Citizens behave as a public body when they confer in an unrestricted fashion- that is, with the guarantee of freedom of assembly and association and the freedom to express and publish their opinions”(p. 198). People are allowed to speak without restriction’s, this allows for a new sense of freedom. People are expressing their opinions and are encouraged by one another. Creating an environment that fosters growth of opinion and discussion.
Habermas (1980) argues that the public sphere first became relevant in London coffeehouses in the period between the 1680’s and 1720’s. How did the public sphere change the social and political structure of London?
Transformation of Social Aspects in London
Coffeehouses transformed social aspects of the city. Ellis (2004) describes the transformation of social aspects within London due to coffeehouses. “bringing a new principal of convivial sociability based on conversation and discussion” (p. 150). Coffeehouses were a place for all people to come and participate in free and unregulated debate. Coffeehouses developed specialties based on their architecture and geography. Different guilds of people attended coffeehouses to participate in discussions based on their specialties. This effectively increased the public sphere, giving equal opportunity for people to come and join in discussion. Ellis (2004) elaborates on how popular sciences flourished in the coffeehouse setting, “The weekly meetings at the Royal Society at Gresham College were in the early years never as popular as their customary assemblies in the coffee-houses around the Royal Exchange, where they met on a daily basis” (p. 157). Individuals now have access to an influx of academic findings. Education and debate are entering the public sphere due to coffeehouses such as the one around the Royal Exchange.
The transformation of social life with regards to coffeehouses wasn’t completely beneficial to the wellbeing of Londoners. Men were primarily involved in this new coffeehouse lifestyle, while wives were not allowed. Women within coffeehouses consisted of prostitutes or servers. The benefits of coffee made for men to get stimulation as well as sober up, a routine was created as described in The Women’s Petition Against Coffee, “So once more they troop to the Sack-Shop, till they are Drunker than before; And then by a Retrograde Motion, stagger back Soberize themselves with Coffee” (Anonymous p. 4). This petition, though written by a man, voiced the opinions of wives opinions towards their husbands new social habits. Men are no longer spending as much time at home, they have news, drinks, and women to entertain them.
Samuel Pepys, a member of parliament, enjoyed the environment of the coffeehouses themselves. London coffeehouses became known for the spread of news and lively debates. Pepys enjoyed the aspect of social interaction. Prior to coffeehouses, intellectual debates were confined to guilds and clubs. However, coffeehouses became a place for anyone to come and join in discussion. Ellis (2004) comments on coffeehouses being a social hub stating, “No seat could be reserved, no man might refuse your company”(p. 59). This increases the public sphere simply by the amount of individuals who are coming to the coffeehouses to participate or listen to discussions happening within. All people can be active within the sphere and bring ideas and needs for all socioeconomic classes. Different classes bring ideas that others are unaware of broadening the sphere, creating better judgements and understandings.
Freedom of Press and the Public Sphere
In the late 17th century the licensing act expired and created an environment in which the English press gained an unprecedented freedom. This system coincided with the triennial act in 1645 which was set to hold elections every three years. Meaning, there was an inability to create any kind of censorship regulations. Downie (1979) argues that this resulted in an increased production of newspapers and political pamphlets. “The combined effect of the triennial act and the abandonment of the licensing system was a tremendous growth in the production of political literature” (p. 1). Without regulations writers are able to publish anything they want. Newspapers, pamphlets, and propaganda exploded throughout London. Robert Harley built a propaganda machine and hired the most influential writers of the time to make pamphlets and promote political views favoring Harley. Downie (1979) touches upon how Defoe widened the spread of information to the public. “Defoe’s tours of the British mainland in Harley’s service had been utilized to set up an intelligence network that allowed the extensive display of political views held by the ministers in an attempt to influence public opinion in the widest possible sense” (p. 2). This was a time where public opinion became very important due to the new nature of coffeehouses news spread fast. Individuals are now given opportunity to express their own ideas, making public opinion a strong aspect of government. These pamphlets and news articles were being used to sway opinions one way or another. Spreading ideas through the public sphere. Individuals begin talking about politics instead of their own personal concerns, bringing ideas into the public sphere. Downie (1979) expands upon this idea by saying, “Propaganda was designed to influence electoral opinion. We may call it public opinion. On occasions it really was public opinion” (p. 5). Public opinion was increasingly important to electoral outcomes and political figures were taking full advantage of lack of censorship to get their parties known in the public sphere.
Newspapers in the early 18th century begin to print news and advertisements. The Evening Post was a paper printed in the evening which discussed news happening is the previous days. This paper provided the people of London with news of war and global affairs:
"Paris, August 21. The King observing yesterday, that People were might inquisitive on the Affairs of Italy, declared, that the Armies there were in motion: which confirms the news that Prince Eugene is marching to joyn the Duke of Savoy" (Anonymous).
This newspaper spread current affairs to Londoners. This was not regulated by the government allowing for citizens to learn about current affairs happening around the world. Freedom of press allows for the public sphere to grow in regards to spread of news and knowledge of current. Affairs.
Spread of News within Coffeehouses
The Spectator prints and distributes three thousand papers daily. Coffeehouses allow for each paper to be read by about 20 or so people. The news is traveling and being shared amongst many people. Addison and Steele discuss the lack of restrictions applied to their newspaper. This allowed for the The Spectator to freely spread ideas. “I shall be ambitious to have it said of me, that I have brought philosophy out of closets and libraries, schools and colleges, to dwell in clubs and assemblies, at tea-tables and in coffee-houses”(p. 129). The Spectator is allowing for the spread of education and ideas to the common people, not just individuals with access to education. People from all different professions and hobbies are now enjoying these writings. The Spectator describes:
"Under this class of men are comprehended all contemplative tradesmen, titular physicians, fellows of the royal society, templars that are not given to be contentious and statesmen that are out of business; in short, everyone that considers the world as a theatre, and desires to form a right judgement of those who are the actors on it" (Addison and Steele 130).
This is a middle class of people, workers who are independently wealthy and are able to attend these coffeehouses on a regular basis. They are accessing new insights and information. The spectator is contributing to the public sphere through the spread of news. Addison and Steele are conveying their ideas and education to the public. The coffeehouses provide an environment for individuals to congregate and discuss new ideas and events happening in and around London.
Final Analysis
The evolution of the public sphere had impact on the social and public affairs of London. Habermas (1980) argues for the emergence of the public sphere in coffeehouses during the late seventeenth century to early eighteenth century. The public sphere increased access to many new findings and ideas.
Coffeehouses in different geographical locations featured different topics and professions to discuss, allowing for flow of new ideas throughout the public sphere. This increased the activity within the public sphere simply by the amount of individuals who were coming to the coffeehouses to participate or listen to discussions happening within. All people can be active within this setting and bring ideas and needs to the attention of all socioeconomic classes. Different classes bring ideas that others are unaware of, broadening the sphere, creating better judgements and understandings. The public sphere had great impact on individuals lives, it allowed for unbiased spread of news amongst any and all socioeconomic class and instigated new developments in political affairs.
Coffeehouses changed many social aspects. It quickly and conveniently spread news as well as changed social dynamics. Men spending more time in coffeehouses then at home created indifference from wives, who themselves were not allowed to partake in this new social exchange. It brought up conflicting interests, however, it created more freedom of discovery for all individuals.
About The Author
Sequoia Ahren is a First Year student at St. Lawrence University in Canton, New York. She transferred from the University of Colorado, Boulder after only one semester and spent the second semester traveling. Sequoia intends to pursue a major in government or public health.
Sequoia is currently enrolled in the first year seminar class London Coffeehouse Culture & Modernity. This class focuses on research skills, public speaking, and writing.
Sequoia spends her time away from school on Martha's Vineyard. She lives here with her parents, brother, and two dogs. Sequoia spends her time at the beach, with friends, or traveling.
Bibliography
Addison, Joseph and Steele, Richard. “No. 10. Monday, March 12, 1710-11.” The Spectator, vol. 1. New York: Appleton & Co., 1853.
Anonymous, “The City-Wives Petition, Against Coffee.” The Women’s Petition Against Coffee. Representing to Publick Consideration The Grand Inconveniences accruing to their Sex from the Excessive Use of that Drying, Enfeebling Liquor. London, Printed 1974.
Anonymous, “ Thursday, August, 26. 1706.” The Evening Post, With the. Historical Account. London: John Morphew, 1706.
Downie, J. A. (2008) Robert Harley and the Press: Propaganda and Public Opinion in the Age of Swift and Defoe. Cambridge University Press.
Habermas, J. (1980) The Public Sphere. In A. Mattlelart, & S. Siegelaub (Eds.), Communication and class struggle (pp. 198-201). International General.
Markman, Ellis. In The Coffee House: A Cultural History. London, Weidenfield and Nicholson, 2004.